Contracts¶

What is a contract?¶

A contract is a collection of code (its functions) and data (its state) that resides at a specific address on the Ethereum blockchain. Contract accounts are able to pass messages between themselves as well as doing practically Turing complete computation. Contracts live on the blockchain in a Ethereum-specific binary format called Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) bytecode.

Contracts are typically written in some high level language such as Solidity and then compiled into bytecode to be uploaded on the blockchain.

Dapp development resources lists the integrated development environments, developer tools that help you develop in these languages, offering testing, and deployment support among other features.

Ethereum high level languages¶

Contracts live on the blockchain in an Ethereum-specific binary format (EVM bytecode) that is executed by the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). However, contracts are typically written in a higher level language and then compiled using the EVM compiler into byte code to be deployed to the blockchain.

Below are the different high level languages developers can use to write smart contracts for Ethereum.

Writing a contract¶

No language would be complete without a Hello World program. Operating within the Ethereum environment, Solidity has no obvious way of “outputting” a string. The closest we can do is to use a log event to place a string into the blockchain:

contract HelloWorld {
        event Print(string out);
        function() { Print("Hello, World!"); }
}

This contract will create a log entry on the blockchain of type Print with a parameter “Hello, World!” each time it is executed.

Compiling a contract¶

Compilation of solidity contracts can be accomplished via a number of mechanisms.

• Using the solc compiler via the command line.
• Using web3.eth.compile.solidity in the javascript console provided by geth or eth (This still requires the solc compiler to be installed).
• The online Solidity realtime compiler.
• The Meteor dapp Cosmo for building solidity contracts.
• The Mix IDE.
• The Ethereum Wallet.

> web3.eth.getCompilers();
["lll", "solidity", "serpent"]

$ geth --solc /usr/local/bin/solc

> admin.setSolc("/usr/local/bin/solc")
solc, the solidity compiler commandline interface
Version: 0.2.2-02bb315d/.-Darwin/appleclang/JIT linked to libethereum-1.2.0-8007cef0/.-Darwin/appleclang/JIT
path: /usr/local/bin/solc

> source = "contract test { function multiply(uint a) returns(uint d) { return a * 7; } }"

> contract = eth.compile.solidity(source).test
{
  code: '605280600c6000396000f3006000357c010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000090048063c6888fa114602e57005b60376004356041565b8060005260206000f35b6000600782029050604d565b91905056',
  info: {
    language: 'Solidity',
    languageVersion: '0',
    compilerVersion: '0.9.13',
    abiDefinition: [{
      constant: false,
      inputs: [{
        name: 'a',
        type: 'uint256'
      } ],
      name: 'multiply',
      outputs: [{
        name: 'd',
        type: 'uint256'
      } ],
      type: 'function'
    } ],
    userDoc: {
      methods: {
      }
    },
    developerDoc: {
      methods: {
      }
    },
    source: 'contract test { function multiply(uint a) returns(uint d) { return a * 7; } }'
  }
}

$ geth --datadir ~/eth/ --loglevel 6 --logtostderr=true --rpc --rpcport 8100 --rpccorsdomain '*' --mine console  2>> ~/eth/eth.log
$ curl -X POST --data '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"eth_compileSolidity","params":["contract test { function multiply(uint a) returns(uint d) { return a * 7; } }"],"id":1}' http://127.0.0.1:8100

contracts = eth.compile.solidity(globalRegistrarSrc)

Create and deploy a contract¶

Before you begin this section, make sure you have both an unlocked account as well as some funds.

You will now create a contract on the blockchain by sending a transaction to the empty address with the EVM code from the previous section as data.

var primaryAddress = eth.accounts[0]
var abi = [{ constant: false, inputs: [{ name: 'a', type: 'uint256' } ]
var MyContract = eth.contract(abi)
var contract = MyContract.new(arg1, arg2, ..., {from: primaryAddress, data: evmByteCodeFromPreviousSection})

All binary data is serialised in hexadecimal form. Hex strings always have a hex prefix 0x.

It is worth pointing out that this step requires you to pay for execution. Your balance on the account (that you put as sender in the from field) will be reduced according to the gas rules of the EVM once your transaction makes it into a block. After some time, your transaction should appear included in a block confirming that the state it brought about is a consensus. Your contract now lives on the blockchain.

The asynchronous way of doing the same looks like this:

MyContract.new([arg1, arg2, ...,]{from: primaryAccount, data: evmCode}, function(err, contract) {
  if (!err && contract.address)
    console.log(contract.address);
});

Interacting with a contract¶

Interaction with a contract is typically done using an abstraction layer such as the eth.contract() function which returns a javascript object with all of the contract functions available as callable functions in javascript.

The standard way to describe the available functions of a contract is the ABI definition. This object is an array which describles the call signature and return values for each available contract function.

var Multiply7 = eth.contract(contract.info.abiDefinition);
var myMultiply7 = Multiply7.at(address);

Now all the function calls specified in the ABI are made available on the contract instance. You can just call those methods on the contract instance in one of two ways.

> myMultiply7.multiply.sendTransaction(3, {from: address})
"0x12345"
> myMultiply7.multiply.call(3)
21

When called using sendTransaction the function call is executed via sending a transaction. This will cost ether to send and the call will be recorded forever on the blockchain. The return value of calls made in this manner is the hash of the stransaction.

When called using call the function is executed locally in the EVM and the return value of the function is returned with the function. Calls made in this manner are not recorded on the blockchain and thus, cannot modify the internal state of the contract. This manner of call is referred to as a constant function call. Calls made in this manner do not cost any ether.

You should use call if you are interested only in the return value and use sendTransaction if you only care about side effects on the state of the contract.

In the example above, there are no side effects, therefore sendTransaction only burns gas and increases the entropy of the universe.

Contract metadata¶

In the previous sections we explained how you create a contract on the blockchain. Now we will deal with the rest of the compiler output, the contract metadata or contract info.

When interacting with a contract you did not create you might want documentation or to look at the source code. Contract authors are encouraged to make such information available by registering it on the blockchain or through a third party service, such as EtherChain. The admin API provides convenience methods to fetch this bundle for any contract that chose to register.

// get the contract info for contract address to do manual verification
var info = admin.getContractInfo(address) // lookup, fetch, decode
var source = info.source;
var abiDef = info.abiDefinition

The underlying mechanism that makes this work is is that:

• contract info is uploaded somewhere identifiable by a URI which is publicly accessible
• anyone can find out what the URI is only knowing the contracts address

These requirements are achieved using a 2 step blockchain registry. The first step registers the contract code (hash) with a content hash in a contract called HashReg. The second step registers a url with the content hash in the UrlHint contract. These registry contracts were part of the Frontier release and have carried on into Homestead.

By using this scheme, it is sufficient to know a contract’s address to look up the url and fetch the actual contract metadata info bundle.

So if you are a conscientious contract creator, the steps are the following:

1. Deploy the contract itself to the blockchain
2. Get the contract info json file.
3. Deploy contract info json file to any url of your choice
4. Register codehash ->content hash -> url

The JS API makes this process very easy by providing helpers. Call admin.register to extract info from the contract, write out its json serialisation in the given file, calculates the content hash of the file and finally registers this content hash to the contract’s code hash. Once you deployed that file to any url, you can use admin.registerUrl to register the url with your content hash on the blockchain as well. (Note that in case a fixed content addressed model is used as document store, the url-hint is no longer necessary.)

source = "contract test { function multiply(uint a) returns(uint d) { return a * 7; } }"
// compile with solc
contract = eth.compile.solidity(source).test
// create contract object
var MyContract = eth.contract(contract.info.abiDefinition)
// extracts info from contract, save the json serialisation in the given file,
contenthash = admin.saveInfo(contract.info, "~/dapps/shared/contracts/test/info.json")
// send off the contract to the blockchain
MyContract.new({from: primaryAccount, data: contract.code}, function(error, contract){
  if(!error && contract.address) {
    // calculates the content hash and registers it with the code hash in `HashReg`
    // it uses address to send the transaction.
    // returns the content hash that we use to register a url
    admin.register(primaryAccount, contract.address, contenthash)
    // here you deploy ~/dapps/shared/contracts/test/info.json to a url
    admin.registerUrl(primaryAccount, hash, url)
  }
});

Testing contracts and transactions¶

Often you need to resort to a low level strategy of testing and debugging contracts and transactions. This section introduces some debug tools and practices you can use. In order to test contracts and transactions without real-word consequences, you best test it on a private blockchain. This can be achieved with configuring an alternative network id (select a unique integer) and/or disable peers. It is recommended practice that for testing you use an alternative data directory and ports so that you never even accidentally clash with your live running node (assuming that runs using the defaults. Starting your geth with in VM debug mode with profiling and highest logging verbosity level is recommended:

geth --datadir ~/dapps/testing/00/ --port 30310 --rpcport 8110 --networkid 4567890 --nodiscover --maxpeers 0 --vmdebug --verbosity 6 --pprof --pprofport 6110 console 2>> ~/dapp/testint/00/00.log

Before you can submit any transactions, you need set up your private test chain. See Test Networks.

// create account. will prompt for password
personal.newAccount();
// name your primary account, will often use it
primary = eth.accounts[0];
// check your balance (denominated in ether)
balance = web3.fromWei(eth.getBalance(primary), "ether");

// assume an existing unlocked primary account
primary = eth.accounts[0];

// mine 10 blocks to generate ether

// starting miner
miner.start(4);
// sleep for 10 blocks (this can take quite some time).
admin.sleepBlocks(10);
// then stop mining (just not to burn heat in vain)
miner.stop();
balance = web3.fromWei(eth.getBalance(primary), "ether");

After you create transactions, you can force process them with the following lines:

miner.start(1);
admin.sleepBlocks(1);
miner.stop();

You can check your pending transactions with:

// shows transaction pool
txpool.status
// number of pending txs
eth.getBlockTransactionCount("pending");
// print all pending txs
eth.getBlock("pending", true).transactions

If you submitted contract creation transaction, you can check if the desired code actually got inserted in the current blockchain:

txhash = eth.sendTansaction({from:primary, data: code})
//... mining
contractaddress = eth.getTransactionReceipt(txhash);
eth.getCode(contractaddress)